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doi:10.1038/s41598-025-88392-8

Both activate AMPK, but through distinct mechanisms: metformin inhibits complex I of the mitochondrial electron transport chain, raising the cellular AMP:ATP ratio and thereby activating AMPK indirectly

Methods Enzymol 252:3853 Vargas MR, Johnson JA (2009) The Nrf2-ARE cytoprotective pathway in astrocytes

Collagen-derived tripeptides (CTP) have demonstrated vascular-protective properties in preclinical models and early human investigations, where they enhanced endothelial resilience under oxidative stress and attenuated vascular inflammation

Currently, metformin is the most commonly used insulin sensitizer for treating PCOS

Biological activities of thymosin beta4 defined by active sites in short peptide sequences